William Edgar (DTheol, University of Geneva) is professor of apologetics and John Boyer Chair of Evangelism and Culture at Westminster Theological Seminary. William lives in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with his wife, Barbara. They have two children and three grandchildren.

K. Scott Oliphint (PhD, Westminster Theological Seminary) is professor of apologetics and systematic theology at Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia and has written numerous scholarly articles and books, including God With Us. He is also the coeditor of the two-volume Christian Apologetics Past and Present: A Primary Source Reader and Revelation and Reason: New Essays in Reformed Apologetics.

Peter Abelard was a French scholastic philosopher, theologian, and preeminent logician during the medieval period.

William Edgar (DTheol, University of Geneva) is professor of apologetics and John Boyer Chair of Evangelism and Culture at Westminster Theological Seminary. William lives in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with his wife, Barbara. They have two children and three grandchildren.

K. Scott Oliphint (PhD, Westminster Theological Seminary) is professor of apologetics and systematic theology at Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia and has written numerous scholarly articles and books, including God With Us. He is also the co-editor of the two-volume Christian Apologetics Past and Present: A Primary Source Reader and Revelation and Reason: New Essays in Reformed Apologetics.

Peter Abelard was a French scholastic philosopher, theologian, and preeminent logician during the medieval period.

Christian Apologetics Past and Present

A Primary Source Reader (Volume 1, To 1500)

By Wiliam Edgar, K. Scott Oliphint

Good News Publishers

Copyright © 2009 William Edgar and K. Scott Oliphint
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-58134-906-1

Contents

Introduction to the Two-Volume Work,
Part 1. The Early Church: The Struggle for Vindication,
Part 1 Introduction,
1. Biblical Texts,
2. Aristides,
3. Justin Martyr,
4. Athenagoras,
5. Irenaeus,
6. Tertullian,
7. Origen,
8. Athanasius,
9. John Chrysostom,
10. Augustine,
Part 2. The Middle Ages: The Church Becomes Established,
Part 2 Introduction,
11. Boethius,
12. Peter Abelard,
13. Anselm,
14. Thomas Aquinas,
15. Raymond Lull,
16. Girolamo Savonarola,

CHAPTER 1

Biblical Texts

The following New Testament texts represent a sampling of apostolic teaching concerning the defense of Christian faith. Jesus told his disciples that he would prepare them for their ministry after his resurrection (Mark 14:28). He would commission them to take the message of the gospel to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8). When it became abundantly clear that Jesus was risen from the dead, the disciples were transformed from a demoralized group to a band of zealous missionaries who would indeed bring the good news to the whole world.

At first they were constituted in Jerusalem. They became the ecclesia, the church. On the day of Pentecost, when the Spirit was poured down in "tongues as of fire," it became clear that a new age was being inaugurated, the age of the Spirit, the final installation of the kingdom of God (Acts 2:33; 1 Cor. 10:11).

From the beginning there were troubles for the church. There was opposition from without. The Sadducee party fiercely opposed the new church. They denied its view of the resurrection (Acts 4:2), and they worried about its gatherings in traditionally Jewish institutions, such as the Portico of Solomon (Acts 3:11; 5:12), and the threat it represented to the Jewish establishment. There was regular opposition to the public speeches of the apostles, at times leading to their arrest (Acts 5:18). Among the Hellenistic Jews was Stephen, a follower of Christ, a member of the Synagogue of the Freedmen, and a strong critic of the corruption of the temple. Indicted by the supreme court, he was charged with blasphemy for proclaiming that Jesus abolished the Mosaic ceremonial laws (Acts 6:14). After an eloquent speech, Stephen was stoned to death, becoming the first Christian martyr (Acts 7). As the church spread beyond the walls of Jerusalem, it would continue to experience opposition. Accordingly, many of the apologetic writings in the New Testament are meant to equip Christians to respond to persecution in a gracious and courageous manner.

There was also conflict within. The churches were constantly tempted by heresies such as Gnosticism, mentioned earlier. They were susceptible to pride, as in the Corinthian church. They were tempted by legalism, often expressed by an unnecessary attachment to the Jewish ceremonial laws, which Christ had abrogated. This was the case in Galatia and Colossae.

Nevertheless the gospel message spread and reached both Jews and Gentiles. In his report to the Jerusalem Council, Peter justifies the true reception of the Gentiles by recounting the coming of the Holy Spirit to those who heard his grace-based message (Acts 15:7–11). The first large-scale conversion of the Gentiles occurred at Antioch under the preaching of certain "men of Cyprus and Cyrene" who had fled from Jerusalem after Stephen's martyrdom (Acts 11:20). Significant also is that it was in Antioch that the name Christians (Christianoi: Christ's ones) was first used. This is a distinctively Gentile title, one that would eventually prevail throughout the world. Indeed Antioch, the third largest city of the world, would become a hub for sending out missionaries to various corners of the ancient world.

The most systematic outreach to the Gentiles was through Saul of Tarsus, called Paul after his conversion. After persecuting the church, he was met by a heavenly vision of Christ on the road to Damascus and then became one of the ablest defenders of the faith of the entire epoch, and of all times. Much of his writing has an apologetic purpose. The beginning of Romans represents a standard defense of the faith, wherein the point of contact is social depravity, proof of the wrath of God against fallen humanity. Both Jews and Gentiles are accountable, since they have in their different ways "suppress[ed] the truth" (Rom. 1:18). Whereas God is clearly known through his revelation, people refused to acknowledge him, and so they became fools (1:19–23). The Jews, who have had the oracles of God, nevertheless practice the things they condemn in others (2:1–4). Yet there is good news: God has revealed his righteousness and a way to be justified before him through Jesus Christ, his only Son, whose atoning sacrifice opened the way for God's mercy to be poured out.

Paul's speech given on Mars Hill in Athens also represents a model for Christian apologetics to a mixed audience (Acts 17:16–34). As mentioned above, Paul took this gospel to the capital of the empire, ending his days in Rome, where "boldly and without hindrance he preached the kingdom of God and taught about the Lord Jesus Christ" (Acts 28:31).

* * *

Although he never identifies himself by name, Luke clearly is the author of both the Gospel by that name and the book of Acts. Luke was not an eyewitness to the events he recorded, as the preface to his Gospel makes clear, yet he knew them well, having done careful research into the matters. He also accompanied Paul on some of his travels (Acts 16:10–17; 20:5–16; 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16). Colossians 4:14 identifies Luke as a physician. The Gospel of Luke was likely written around AD 63 and was addressed directly to a person called Theophilus, and through him to all subsequent readers. The brief passage quoted below is the introduction to the entire Gospel. Luke is clearly concerned not only for the historical data but for the message of salvation surrounding the person and work of Jesus Christ.

Luke 1:1–4

"Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile a narrative of the things that have been accomplished among us, 2 just as those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word have delivered them to us, 3 it seemed good to me also, having followed all things closely for some time past, to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, 4 that you may have certainty concerning the things you have been taught."

* * *

John's Gospel is also anonymous, but all the evidence points to the author being John the son of Zebedee. He was not only an eyewitness to the events he reports but was also the disciple "whom Jesus loved," a title signifying a very close friendship with Jesus ( John 13:23). Tradition suggests that John wrote his Gospel toward the end of his life, around AD 85–90. The passage below tells us that John's purpose was apologetic. At the center is Jesus Christ, who "was in the world, and the world was made through him, yet the world did not know him" ( John 1:10). Throughout the Gospel various discourses and various miracles are recorded. It is clear that they are not ends in themselves but are meant to lead to saving faith in the Son of God.

John...